Methods of altering calcium transport

ABSTRACT

Methods of altering transmembrane calcium transport by altering expression of a calcium-transport protein are described.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation of prior application Ser. No. 10/328,091, filed Dec. 23, 2002, which is a divisional of prior application Ser. No. 09/350,457, filed Jul. 9, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,534,642 B1, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to transcellular transport of calcium, and in particular to compositions encoding calcium-transport proteins.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Calcium is a major component of the mineral phase of bone, and in ionic form plays an important role in cellular signal transduction. In particular, a signaling ligand (the “first messenger”) such as a hormone may exert an effect on a cell to which it binds by causing a short-lived increase or decrease in the intracellular concentration of another molecule (the “second messenger”); calcium is known to play the role of first or second messenger in numerous cellular signaling contexts.

Calcium homeostasis in blood and other extracellular fluids is tightly controlled through the actions of calciotropic hormones on bone, kidneys, and intestine. In humans, dietary intake of calcium approximates 500 to 1000 mg/day, and obligatory endogenous losses in stool and urine total about 250 mg/day. On the order of 30% of calcium in the diet must be absorbed to sustain bone growth in children and to prevent postmenopausal bone loss in aging women. To meet the body's need for calcium, the intestines of most vertebrates evolved specialized vitamin D-dependent and -independent mechanisms for ensuring adequate intestinal calcium uptake. Intestinal absorption of Ca²⁺ occurs by both a saturable, transcellular process and a nonsaturable, paracellular pathway. When dietary calcium is abundant, the passive paracellular pathway is thought to be predominant. In contrast, when dietary calcium is limited, the active, vitamin D-dependent transcellular pathway plays a major role in calcium absorption.

The transcellular intestinal-uptake pathway is a multistep process, consisting of entry of luminal Ca²⁺ into an intestinal epithelial cell (i.e., an enterocyte), translocation of Ca²⁺ from its point of entry (the microvillus border of the apical plasma membrane) to the basolateral membrane, followed by active extrusion from the cell. Intracellular Ca²⁺ diffusion is thought to be facilitated by a calcium binding protein, calbindin D_(9K), whose biosynthesis is dependent on vitamin D. The extrusion of Ca²⁺ takes place against an electrochemical gradient and is mainly mediated by Ca-ATPase. The entry of Ca²⁺ across the apical membrane of the enterocyte is strongly favored electrochemically because the concentration of Ca²⁺ within the cell (10⁻⁷–10⁻⁶ M) is considerably lower than that in the intestinal lumen (10⁻³ M) and the cell is electronegative relative to the intestinal lumen; as a result, the movement of Ca²⁺ across the apical membrane does not require the expenditure of energy.

The molecular mechanism responsible for entry of Ca²⁺ into intestinal cells has, however, been difficult to characterize. In particular, researchers have disagreed as to whether a transporter or a channel is responsible for this process (although studies have indicated that Ca²⁺ entry is voltage-independent and largely insensitive to classic L-type calcium channel blockers).

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Brief Summary of the Invention

The present invention is directed, in a first aspect, toward a membrane protein that functions to transport calcium across cellular membranes. Our data indicate that this protein plays a key role in mediating Ca²⁺ entry into enterocytes as the first step of transcellular intestinal calcium absorption. Expression of the human homologue can be detected in placenta, pancreas, prostate, kidney, the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum colon), liver, hair follicles, and testis, and is also expressed in cancer cell lines (specifically, chronic myelogenous leukemia cell line K-562 and colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line SW480). The rat isoform is expressed in rat intestine (although not in rat kidney). Thus, in contrast to the rat isoform, the human protein may be involved in the absorption/resorption of calcium in both intestine and kidney. Dysfunction of the human protein may be implicated in hyper- and hypocalcemia and calciuria, as well as in bone diseases, leukemia, and cancers affecting the prostate, breast, esophagus, stomach, and colon.

One embodiment of the invention comprises, as a composition of matter, a non-naturally occurring calcium-transport protein. Preferably, the transporter is a polypeptide encoded by a nucleic acid sequence within Seq. I.D. No. 1 or 3. In this context, the term “encoded” refers to an amino-acid sequence whose order is derived from the sequence of the nucleic acid or its complement. The nucleic acid sequence represented by Seq. I.D. No. 1 is derived from human sources. The nucleic acid sequence represented by Seq. I.D. No. 3 is derived from rat.

One aspect of this embodiment is directed toward a transporter having an amino-acid sequence substantially corresponding at least to the conserved regions of Seq. I.D. Nos. 2 or 4. The term “substantially,” in this context, refers to a polypeptide that may comprise substitutions and modifications that do not alter the physiological activity of the protein to transport calcium across cellular membranes. The polypeptide represented by Seq. I.D. No. 2 is derived from human sources. The peptide represented by Seq. I.D. No. 4 is derived from rat.

In a second aspect, the invention pertains to a non-naturally occurring nucleic acid sequence encoding a calcium-transport protein. One embodiment of this aspect of the invention is directed toward a transporter having a nucleotide sequence substantially corresponding at least to the conserved regions of Seq. I.D. Nos. 2 or 4. The term “substantially,” in this context, refers to a nucleic acid that may comprise substitutions and modifications that do not alter encoding of the amino-acid sequence, or which encodes a polypeptide having the same physiological activity in transporting calcium across cellular membranes. The term “corresponding” means homologous or complementary to a particular nucleic-acid sequence.

As used herein, the term “non-naturally occurring,” in reference to a cell, refers to a cell that has a non-naturally occurring nucleic acid or a non-naturally occurring polypeptide, or is fused to a cell to which it is not fused in nature. The term “non-naturally occurring nucleic acid” refers to a portion of genomic nucleic acid, a nucleic acid derived (e.g., by transcription) thereof, cDNA, or a synthetic or semi-synthetic nucleic acid which, by virtue of its origin or isolation or manipulation or purity, is not present in nature, or is linked to another nucleic acid or other chemical agent other than that to which it is linked in nature. The term “non-naturally occurring polypeptide” or “non-naturally occurring protein” refers to a polypeptide which, by virtue of its amino-acid sequence or isolation or origin (e.g., synthetic or semi-synthetic) or manipulation or purity, is not present in nature, or is a portion of a larger naturally occurring polypeptide, or is linked to peptides, functional groups or chemical agents other than that to which it is linked in nature.

A third aspect of the present invention comprises a method of transporting calcium across a cellular membrane having a calcium transporter in accordance herewith. Calcium (in the divalent ionic form) is applied to the cellular membrane under conditions that allow the transporter to transport the calcium.

The cellular membrane can be derived, for example, from placenta, pancreas, prostate, kidney, the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, colon), liver, or testis; or may be one of these tissues either in vivo or ex vivo. In practicing the method, the cell(s) giving rise to the cellular membrane may be transformed with the nucleic acid of Seq. I.D. Nos. 1 or 3 and maintained under conditions favoring functional expression of the transporter. A cell may be monitored for expression of the transporter by measuring the presence of calcium in the cell or transmembrane current flow. The invention also extends to a cell so transformed (e.g., a Xenopus laevis oocyte as described below).

In a fourth aspect, the invention comprises a method of identifying chemicals capable of interacting with the transporter, whether the protein is integral with a cellular membrane or present as a free species. Such chemicals may include antibodies or other targeting molecules that bind to the protein for purposes of identification, or which affect (e.g., by modulation or inhibition) the transport properties of the protein; and transportable species other than calcium.

In a fifth aspect, the invention comprises a method of blocking or inhibiting the uptake of calcium by cells having a calcium-transport protein in accordance herewith. In one embodiment, the method comprises the steps of causing an antibody or other targeting molecule to bind to the protein in a manner that inhibits calcium transport. In another embodiment, a nucleic acid complementary to at least a portion of the nucleic acid encoding the calcium-transport protein is introduced into the cells. The complementary nucleic acid blocks functional expression of the calcium-transport protein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing discussion will be understood more readily from the following detailed description of the invention, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 graphically illustrates identification of CaT1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes by means of a calcium-uptake assay;

FIGS. 2A and 2B schematically illustrate the structure and topology of a human and a rat calcium transporter, respectively, in accordance herewith;

FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate the primary peptide structure of a human calcium transporter corresponding to SEQ ID NO:2;

FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate the primary peptide structure of a rat calcium transporter corresponding to SEQ ID NO:4;

FIGS. 5A–5E graphically illustrate various calcium-uptake properties of rat CaT1 proteins;

FIG. 6A and 6B depict responses of Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing CaT1 following external application of Ca²⁺;

FIG. 6C and 6D depict responses of Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing CaT1following injection of the calcium chelator EGTA (i.e., ethylene glycol-bis(β-aminoethylether)-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid);

FIG. 7A depicts the response of Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing CaT1 to Na⁺ in the absence of Ca²⁺;

FIG. 7B depicts the response of Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing CaT1to Ca²⁺ in the presence of Na⁺ at low concentrations;

FIGS. 8A and 8B depict the charge-to-⁴⁵Ca²⁺ ratio in voltage-clamped, CaT1-expressing oocytes in the presence of and in the absence of Na⁺, respectively; and

FIG. 9 depicts the response of voltage-clamped, CaT1-expressing oocytes to Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺, and Mg²⁺.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

1. CaT1 and its Nucleic Acids

With reference to Seq. I.D. No. 1, a human-derived cDNA having a nucleotide sequence encoding a calcium-transport protein contains 2218 nucleotides; an open reading frame of 2175 base pairs (bp) encodes a protein having 725 amino acids, which is set forth as Seq. ID. No. 2. With reference to Seq. I.D. No. 3, a rat-derived cDNA having a nucleotide sequence encoding a calcium-transport protein contains 2995 nucleotides; an open reading frame of 2181 base pairs (bp) encodes a protein having 727 amino acids, which is set forth as Seq. ID. No. 4. This protein is set forth as Seq. ID. No. 4. The designation CaT1 is herein used interchangeably to refer to the human protein of Seq. I.D. No. 2 and the rat protein of Seq. I.D. No. 4.

The predicted relative molecular mass of rat CaT1 is 83,245 (M_(r)=83.2 kDa), which is consistent with the molecular weight obtained by in vitro translation without microsomes (84 kDa). Hydropathy analysis suggests that the calcium transporter is a polytopic protein containing six transmembrane domains (TMs) with an additional short hydrophobic stretch between TM5 and 6 as illustrated in FIG. 1. Consistent with the molecular weight of the protein obtained by in vitro translation in the presence of microsomes (89 kDa), an N-glycosylation site is predicted in the first extracellular loop of the protein. The amino-terminal hydrophilic segment (326 amino acid residues) of rat CaT1 contains four ankyrin repeat domains, suggesting that the protein may somehow associate with the spectrin-based membrane cytoskeleton. The carboxyl terminus (150 amino-acid residues) contains no recognizable motifs. Putative phosphorylation sites for protein kinases A (PKA) and C (PKC) are present in the cytoplasmic domains, suggesting that transport activity could be regulated by phosphorylation. FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate the primary structures of human and rat CaT1, respectively, showing the transmembrane domains as well as glycosylation, PKA, and PKC sites, and ankyrin repeat sequences.

The human protein shows 75% amino acid sequence identity to the recently cloned rabbit apical epithelial calcium channel ECaC (see Hoenderop et al., J. Biol. Chem. 296:8375–8378 (1999)) when using the BESTFIT sequence alignment program. There are, however, numerous differences between the proteins, in particular with respect to the amino- and carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic domains, which are considerably more conserved between the rat and human CaT1 than between either transporter and ECaC; the number of ankyrin repeats; the number and distribution of PKA and PKC phosphorylation sites; and their N-glycosylation sites. In particular, the amino- and carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic domains of CaT1 from rat and ECaC from rabbit exhibit a lower degree of similarity than the equivalent regions of rat CaT1 and partial sequences obtained from human small intestine (not shown) by homology screening using the CaT1 cDNA as a probe. Comparisons of sequences of 150 amino acids in the amino- or carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic domains revealed 90% and 74% identities respectively, between rat and human CaT1 but only 61% and 50% identities, respectively, between CaT1 and ECaC. CaT1 has four ankyrin repeats and one PKA phosphorylation site in its amino-terminal segment, whereas ECaC contains three ankyrin repeats and no PKA site in the same region. In contrast, ECaC possesses three PKC sites and two PKA sites in its carboxyl-terminus, whereas CaT1 has only one PKC site and no PKA sites in the same region. In addition, CaT1 lacks the putative N-glycosylation site found in ECaC between the pore region and transmembrane domain 6. A striking difference between CaT1 and ECaC is that ECaC is abundant in the distal tubules and cortical collecting duct of rabbit kidney, while the CaT1 mRNA was undetectable in rat kidney, based on Northern analysis and in situ hybridization.

Additional homology searches of available protein databases revealed significant similarities between CaT1 and the capsaicin receptor, VR1 (see Caterina et al., Nature 389:816–824 (1997)), and OSM-9, a C. elegans membrane protein involved in olfaction, mechanosensation and olfactory adaptation (see Colbert et al., J. Neurosci. 17:8259–8269 (1997)). These proteins are structurally related to the family of putative store-operated calcium channels, among which the first two identified were the Drosophila retinal proteins, TRP (see Montell et al., Neuron 2:1313–1323 (1989)) and TRPL (see Phillips et al., Neuron 8:631–642 (1992)). Based on the program BESTFIT, CaT1 shows 33.7% and 26.7% identities to VR1 and OSM-9, respectively, over a stretch of at least 500 residues, as well as 26.2% and 28.9% identities to TRP and TRPL, respectively, in more restricted regions (residues 552–593 for TRP and residues 556–593 for TRPL). The latter region covers part of the pore region and the last transmembrane domain. A common feature of all of these proteins is the presence of six TMs with a hydrophobic stretch between TM5 and TM6, resembling one of the four repeated motifs of 6 TMs in the voltage-gated channels. Another common feature is the presence of three to four ankyrin repeat domains in the cytoplasmic N-terminal region. Of note, members of the polycystin family also possess 6 transmembrane segments (30–32) and show a modest degree of homology to CaT1 in small regions of the predicted amino acid sequences (residues 596–687 in PKD2, 23% identity; and residues 381–483 in PKD2L, 26% identity), but the polycystins contain no ankyrin repeats. As explained below, however, it is unlikely that CaT1 is another subtype of capsaicin-gated or store-operated ion channels.

A homology search using the CaT1 sequence in expressed sequence tag (EST) databases revealed the following sequences with high degrees of similarity to CaT1 (names refer to GenBank accession numbers and % identities to nucleotide identities): AI101583 from rat brain (99%); AI007094 from mouse thymus (96%); AA447311, AA469437, AA579526 from human prostate (87%, 85%, 84%, respectively), W88570 from human fetal liver spleen (91%); AA078617 from human brain (85%); T92755 from human lung (92%).

2. Isolation and Analysis of CaT1

To clone the gene(s) encoding CaT1, an expression cloning strategy using Xenopus laevis oocytes as the expression system was employed. Functional screening of a rat duodenal library by measuring ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake resulted in the isolation of a cDNA clone encoding CaT1. We found that oocytes injected with mRNA from rat duodenum or cecum exhibited reproducible increases in Ca²⁺ uptake over water-injected control oocytes. After size-fractionation of rat duodenal poly(A)⁺ RNA, we detected a substantial increase in ⁴⁵ Ca²⁺ uptake by injection of RNA from a 2.5 to 3 kb pool (FIG. 1). A library was constructed using this RNA pool, and a single clone was isolated from this size-fractionated cDNA library by screening progressively smaller pools of clones for their ability to induce ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake in cRNA-injected oocytes. The resultant 3-kb cDNA produced large increases in Ca²⁺ uptake (˜30 fold) when expressed in oocytes.

The experimental procedures we employed were as follows.

Expression Cloning—Expression cloning using Xenopus oocytes was performed in accordance with known techniques as described in Romero et al., Methods Enzymol. 296:17–52 (1998), hereby incorporated by reference. In particular, duodenal poly(A)⁺ RNA from rats fed a calcium-deficient diet for 2 weeks was size-fractionated. A cDNA library was then constructed from the fractions of 2.5 to 3 kilobases (kb) that stimulated ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake activity when expressed in oocytes. The RNAs synthesized in vitro from pools of ˜500 clones were injected into oocytes, and the abilities of the pools to stimulate Ca²⁺ uptake were assayed. A positive pool was sequentially subdivided and assayed in the same manner until a single clone was obtained. The cDNA clone was sequenced bidirectionally.

⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake assay—Defolliculated Xenopus laevis oocytes were injected with either 50 nl of water or RNA. ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake was assayed 3 days after injection of poly(A)⁺ or 1–3 days a injection of synthetic complementary RNA (cRNA). For expression cloning, oocytes were incubated in modified Barth's solution supplemented with 1 mM SrCl₂ (to avoid excessive loading of oocytes with Ca²⁺) as well as penicillin, streptomycin and gentamycin at 1 mg/ml. Standard uptake solution contained the following components (in mM): NaCl 100, KCl 2, MgCl₂ 1, CaCl₂ 1 (including ⁴⁵Ca²⁺), Hepes 10, pH 7.5. Uptake was performed at room temperature for 30 minutes (for the expression cloning procedure, 2 hour uptakes were employed), and oocytes were washed 6 times with ice-cold uptake medium plus 20 mM MgCl₂. The effects of capsaicin or L-type channel blockers on Ca²⁺ uptake were studied in uptake solution by addition of 50 μM capsaicin (in ethanol solution, final concentration 0.05%) or 10–100 μM calcium channel blockers in water (nifedipine was diluted with uptake solution from 100 mM DMSO stock solution). Control experiments were performed with the appropriate ethanol and DMSO concentrations. Unless stated specifically, data are presented as means obtained from at least three experiments with 7 to 10 oocytes per group with standard error of the mean (S.E.M.) as the index of dispersion. Statistical significance was defined as having a P value of less than 0.05 as determined by Student's t-test.

In situ hybridization—Digoxigenin-labeled sense and antisense run-off transcripts were synthesized. CaT1 cRNA probes were transcribed from a PCR fragment that contains about 2.7 kb of CaT1 cDNA (nucleotides 126–2894) flanked at either end by promoter sequences for SP6 and T7 RNA polymerases. Sense and anti-sense transcripts were alkali-hydrolyzed to an average length of 200–400 nucleotides. In situ hybridization was performed on 10 μm cryosections of fresh-frozen rat tissues. Sections were immersed in slide mailers in hybridization solution composed of 50% formamide, 5×SSC, 2% blocking reagent, 0.02% SDS and 0.1% N-laurylsarcosine, and hybridized at 68° C. for 16 hours with sense or antisense probe at a concentration of about 200 ng/ml. Sections were then washed 3 times in 2×SSC and twice for 30 min in 0.2×SSC at 68° C. After washing, the hybridized probes were visualized by alkaline phosphatase histochemistry using alkaline-phosphatase-conjugated anti-digoxigenin Fab fragments and bromochloroindolyl phosphate/nitroblue tetrazolium (BCIP/NBT).

In vitro transcription was performed with the mMESSAGE mMACHINE T7 Kit (Ambion, Austin, Tex.). In vitro translation of the CaT1 protein was performed with the Rabbit Reticulocyte Lysate System (Promega, Madison, Wis.).

3. Tissue Distribution of CaT1

Northern analysis of rat tissues revealed a strong 3.0-kb band in rat small intestine and a weaker 6.5-kb band in brain, thymus and adrenal gland. No CaT1 transcripts were detected in heart, kidney, liver, lung, spleen and skeletal muscle. Northern analysis of the gastrointestinal tract revealed that the 3-kb CaT1 transcript is expressed in duodenum and proximal jejunum, cecum and colon but not in stomach, distal jejunum or ileum. The CaT1 mRNA in rat duodenum was not regulated by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ nor by calcium deficiency in vivo.

In situ hybridization revealed expression of CaT1 mRNA in the absorptive epithelial cells of duodenum, proximal jejunum, cecum and colon but not in ileum. CaT1 mRNA is expressed at high levels in duodenum and cecum, at lower levels in proximal jejunum and at very low levels in colon. In all CaT1-expressing intestinal segments, mRNA levels were observed to be higher at the villi tips than in the villi crypts. No signals were detected in the kidney under the same experimental conditions or in sense controls.

Northern analysis procedures were as follows. Poly(A)⁺ RNA (3 μg) from rat tissues were electrophoresed in formaldehyde-agarose gels and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. The filters were probed with ³²P-labeled full-length CaT1 cDNA, hybridized at 42° C. with a solution containing 50% formamide, 5×SSPE, 2× Denhardt's solution, 0.1% SDS and 100 μg/ml denatured salmon sperm DNA (and washed with 5×SSC/0.1% SDS at 50° C. for 2×30 minutes and 0.1×SSC at 65° C. for 3×30 minutes. Autoradiography was performed at −80° C. for 1 to 2 days.

4. Characterization of Functional Properties of CaT1 by ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ Uptake Assay

Since CaT1 shares some similarity in its structure with the capsaicin receptor (VR1), TRP and TRPL channels, we tested the possibility that the activity of CaT1 could be stimulated by capsaicin or calcium-store depletion using the uptake assay described above. Capsaicin (up to 50 μM) did not stimulate CaT1 -mediated ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake in oocytes. Instead of stimulating Ca²⁺ entry, depletion of calcium stores by thapsigargin treatment decreased CaT1-mediated Ca²⁺ activity to about 20% of its baseline activity (FIG. 5A). Based on these data, it is unlikely that CaT1 is another subtype of capsaicin-gated or store-operated ion channels.

When expressed in oocytes, CaT1-mediated ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake was linear for up to 2 hours. Ca²⁺ uptake was concentration-dependent and saturable, with an apparent Michaelis constant (K_(m)) of 0.44±0.07 mM (FIG. 5B). This K_(m) is appropriate for absorbing Ca²⁺ from the intestine, which is normally around 1 to 5 mM after a calcium-containing meal, and accords with values reported in physiological studies of calcium absorption in rat, hamster, pig, and human intestines. Consistent with the prediction from early studies that apical Ca²⁺ uptake is not energy-dependent, CaT1-mediated transport did not appear to be coupled to Na⁺, Cl⁻ or H⁺ (FIGS. 5C and 5D). To study the substrate specificity of CaT1, we initially performed inhibition studies of ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake (1 mM Ca²⁺) by various di- and trivalent cations (100 μM) (FIG. 5E). Gd³⁺, La³⁺, Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Co²⁺ and Ni²⁺ produced marked to moderate inhibition, whereas Fe²⁺, Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺ and Ni²⁺ had no significant effects. In contrast, Ba²⁺ and Sr²⁺ had only slight inhibitory effects, even at a concentration of 10 mM, whereas Mg²⁺ (10 mM) produced no significant inhibition (FIG. 5E).

Ca²⁺ entry into enterocytes has, in general, been reported to be insensitive to classic voltage-dependent calcium channel blockers, and to be only slightly inhibited by verapamil. Among the three classes of L-type calcium channel blockers that we tested—nifedipine, diltiazem and verapamil—only the latter two modestly inhibited CaT1-mediated Ca²⁺ uptake (by 10–15%) at relatively high concentrations (10–100 μM).

5. Electrophysiological Properties of CaT1—Mediated Transport

Two-microelectrode voltage clamp experiments were performed using standard techniques (see Chen et al., J. Biol. Chem. 274:2773–2779 (1999)) using a commercial amplifier and pCLAMP software (Version 7, Axon Instruments, Inc., Foster City, Calif.). An oocyte was introduced into the chamber containing Ca²⁺-free solution and was incubated for about 3 minutes before being clamped at −50 mV and subjected to measurements. In experiments involving voltage ramps or jumps, whole-cell current and voltage were recorded by digitizing at 300 μs/sample and by Bessel filtering at 10 kHz. When recording currents at a holding potential, digitization at 0.2 s/sample and filtering at 20 Hz were employed. Voltage ramping consisted of pre-holding at −150 mV for 200 ms to eliminate capacitive currents and a subsequent linear increase from −150 to +50 mV, with a total duration of 1.4. Voltage jumping consisted of 150 ms voltage pulses of between −140 and +60 mV, in increments of +20 mV. Steady-state currents were obtained as the average values in the interval from 135 to 145 ms after the initiation of the voltage pulses. For experiments involving voltage-clamped ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake, Ca²⁺-evoked currents and uptake of ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ were simultaneously measured at −50 mV, using a method similar to that described in Chen et al. (cited above).

It is found that CaT1-mediated Ca²⁺ transport is driven by the electrochemical gradient of Ca²⁺. There is no evidence for coupling of Ca²⁺ uptake to other ions or to metabolic energy. While CaT1-mediated Ca²⁺ transport is electrogenic and voltage dependent, its kinetic behavior is distinct from that of the voltage-dependent calcium channels, which are operated by membrane voltage. At a macroscopic level, the kinetic properties of CaT1 resemble those of a facilitated transporter, and patch clamp studies have not as yet provided any evidence for distinct single-channel activity. CaT1may represent an evolutionary transition between a channel and a facilitated transporter.

More specifically, external application of Ca²⁺ to oocytes expressing CaT1 generated inward currents at a holding potential of −50 mV (FIG. 6A), which were absent in control oocytes. Addition of 5 mM Ca²⁺ evoked an overshoot of inward current to several hundred nA followed by a rapid reduction to a plateau value of 20–50 nA (FIG. 6A). CaT1-mediated current was also voltage-dependent, as revealed by current-voltage (I-V) curves (FIG. 6B). The peak current is due to endogenous Ca²⁺-activated chloride-channel currents because it could be blocked by chloride channel blockers such as flufenamate. The plateau also contained flufenamate-inhibitable currents, suggesting that some endogenous, Ca²⁺-activated chloride channels remained active during this phase. Chelating intracellular Ca²⁺ by injection of EGTA into oocytes expressing CaT1 to a final concentration of 1–2 mM resulted in a three- to five-fold increase in Ca²⁺ uptake and abolished the overshoot of the current (FIG. 6A). Under the same condition, EGTA-injected control oocytes produced no detectable currents. Therefore, CaT1 likely mediates the observed Ca²⁺-evoked currents in EGTA-injected oocytes (FIGS. 6C, 6D).

In the absence of Ca²⁺, oocytes expressing CaT1 exhibited a significant permeability to Na⁺ at hyperpolarized potentials (FIG. 7A). Similar conductances were observed for K⁺, Rb⁺ and Li⁺ (K⁺≈Rb⁺>Na⁺>Li⁺). CaT1-mediated permeation of monovalent cations exhibited inward rectification because the sum of endogenous K⁺ and Na⁺ concentrations is high in Xenopus oocytes. In addition, Ca²⁺-evoked currents were slightly lower in the presence of 100 mM Na⁺ than in its absence (FIG. 7B), presumably due to the presence of modest competition between Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ for permeation via CaT1. With prolonged application of Ca²⁺ (30 minutes) to non-clamped oocytes expressing CaT1, Ca²⁺ entry was enhanced by extracellular Na⁺ (FIG. 5C ).

In order to determine whether Ca²⁺ entry via CaT1 is associated with influx or efflux of other ions, the charge-to-⁴⁵Ca²⁺ influx ratio was determined in voltage clamped oocytes pre-injected with EGTA (FIG. 8A). In the absence of external Na⁺, the calculated ratio was not significantly different (FIG. 8B), indicating that permeation of Ca²⁺ alone accounts for the observed inward currents. The findings that EGTA injection increases CaT1 activity and that the calcium-evoked current decays upon prolonged calcium application (FIG. 8A) suggest that CaT1 is controlled by a feedback regulatory mechanism, possibly through interaction of intracellular calcium with the transporter.

CaT1 is relatively specific for Ca²⁺, showing only moderate ability to transport other ions. Despite their weak inhibitory potencies, Ba²⁺ and Sr²⁺, but not Mg²⁺, evoked CaT1-specific currents albeit with much smaller amplitudes (FIG. 9). In EGTA-injected oocytes expressing CaT1 that were clamped at −50 mV, currents due to addition of 5 mM Ba²⁺ and Sr²⁺ represented 12±2% and 20±4% (n=17), respectively, of the current evoked by 5 mM Ca²⁺. No significant Sr²⁺-evoked or Ba²⁺-evoked currents were observed in control oocytes under similar conditions. Other divalent metal ions, including Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺, Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺, and the trivalent metal ions Fe³⁺, La³⁺ and Gd³⁺ (each at 100 μM), did not evoke measurable currents when applied to oocytes expressing CaT1. In agreement with their inhibitory effects on ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake (see FIG. 4E), Gd³⁺, La³⁺, Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Co²⁺ and Ni²⁺ (each at 100 μM) all inhibited the Ca²⁺-evoked currents, whereas the same concentration of Fe³⁺, Mn²⁺ and Zn²⁺ had no observable effects. Magnesium is neither a substrate (up to 20 mM) nor an effective blocker of CaT1.

Patch-clamp methodology was employed to search for single-channel activities using cell-attached and excised membrane patches. Patch pipettes were prepared from 7052 Corning glass capillaries. The pipette tip resistance was 5–10 MΩ. Seal resistances of >10 GΩ were employed in single channel experiments, and currents were measured using an integrating patch-clamp amplifier with filtering at 3 kHz through an 8-pole Bessel filter. In cell-attached patches, the resting potential corresponded to holding the patches at 0 mV. For data acquisition and analysis, voltage stimuli were applied and single channel currents digitized (50–200 us per point) and analyzed using a PC, a Digidata Pack and programs based on pCLAMP 6.

No CaT1-specific channel activities could be identified that were clearly distinguishable from the endogenous channels present in control oocytes, based on studies of 52 patches from 46 oocytes (EGTA- or non-EGTA-injected) obtained from seven frogs.

6. Applications of CaT1 and its Nucleic Acids

Although the full potential of CaT1 as a therapeutic target has not been investigated, the tissue distribution described above indicates several worthwhile treatment applications involving activation or inhibition of the CaT1 protein. Inhibition of CaT1, for example, may be used to treat kidney stones and various hypercalcemia conditions by restricting intestinal uptake of calcium. Stimulation of intestinal calcium uptake, on the other hand, could be used to treat conditions (such as osteoporosis and osteomalacia) characterized by reduced intestinal calcium absorption or reduced bone mass, as well as skin diseases (by stimulation of differentiation) and, possibly, hair growth. Given the potential role of calcium transport in various malignancies, modulation of CaT1 may prove useful in combating tumors.

CaT1 may be inhibited by pharmacological antagonists, blocking antibodies or by reducing transcription of its gene. Conversely, CaT1 may be stimulated by pharmacological agonists, stimulatory antibodies or by increasing transcription of its gene. Blocking or stimulatory antibodies against CaT1 are obtained in accordance with well-known immunological techniques, and a polyclonal mixture of such antibodies is screened for clones that exert an inhibitory or stimulatory effect on CaT1. The effect of pharmacological compounds or antibodies can be measured (and the efficacy of the treatment agent assayed) by observing the free cystolic calcium concentration (e.g., using a calcium-sensitive intracellular dye), activation of any calcium-sensitive intracellular processes (e.g., the activities of enzymes, gene expression, ion channels, the activity of other calcium-regulated transporters, or electrophysiological measurements (as described above)), or ⁴⁵Ca-uptake studies (also as described above). The monoclonal antibody lines are then employed therapeutically in accordance with known inhibitory treatment methodologies. Alternatively, nucleic acid isolated or synthesized for complementarity to the sequences described herein can be used as anti-sense genes to prevent the expression of CaT1. For example, complementary DNA may be loaded into a suitable carrier such as a liposome for introduction into a cell. A nucleic acid having 8 or more nucleotides is capable of binding to genomic nucleic acid or mRNA. Preferably, the anti-sense nucleic acid comprises 30 or more nucleotides to provide necessary stability to a hybridization product with genomic DNA or mRNA.

Nucleic acid synthesized in accordance with the sequences described herein also have utility to generate CaT1 polypeptides or portions thereof. Nucleic acid exemplified by Seq. I.D. Nos. 1 or 3 can be cloned in suitable vectors or used to isolate nucleic acid. The isolated nucleic acid is combined with suitable DNA linkers and promoters, and cloned in a suitable vector. The vector can be used to transform a host organism such as E. coli and to express the encoded polypeptide for isolation.

Although the present invention has been described with reference to specific details, it is not intended that such details should be regarded as limitations upon the scope of the invention, except as and to the extent that they are included in the accompanying claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for modulating transmembrane calcium transport, the method comprising the steps of: a. providing a cell that expresses a nucleic acid encoding a protein that transports calcium across a membrane, the nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO; 1, or substitutions or modifications thereof, wherein the substituted or modified nucleic acid sequence encodes a protein that transports calcium across a cellular membrane wherein said protein is at least 75% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 but distinct from ECaC; and b. contacting the cell with a chemical that interacts with the protein so as to affect its calcium transmembrane transporting activity, thereby altering a rate of calcium transport across the membrane.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical is an antibody.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical is a nucleic acid.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical is an inhibitor.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell is an epithelial cell.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell is a Xenopus laevis oocyte, placenta cell, pancreas cell, prostate cell, kidney cell, gastrointestinal tract cell, liver cell, hair follicle cell, testis cell, or cancer cell.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the cell is an esophageal cell, stomach cell, duodenum cell, jejunum cell, or colon cell.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the cell is the chronic myelogenous leukemia cell line K-562, the colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line SW480, a bone cell, a leukemia cell, a prostate cancer cell, a breast cancer cell, a esophagus cancer cell, a stomach cancer cell, or a colon cancer cell.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical alters the calcium transport properties of the protein.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical binds to the protein.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the protein is integral with the cellular membrane.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical is present as a free species.
 13. A method of identifying the ability of a chemical to alter transmembrane calcium transport, the method comprising the steps of: a. providing a cell that expresses a nucleic acid encoding a protein that transports calcium across a membrane, the nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, or substitutions or modifications thereof, wherein the substituted or modified nucleic acid sequence encodes a protein that transports calcium across a cellular membrane wherein said protein is at least 75% identical to SEQ ID NO:2 but distinct from ECaC, the cell expressing the protein in a membrane of the cell; b. contacting the membrane with at least one candidate antibody or nucleic acid; c. measuring the transmembrane calcium transport rate via the protein in the presence of the chemical; and d. comparing the measurement of step (c) with the transmembrane calcium transport rate via the protein in the absence of the chemical, wherein the comparison indicates whether the chemical has altered the transmembrane calcium transport.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the cell is an epithelial cell.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the cell is a Xenopus laevis oocyte, placenta cell, pancreas cell, prostate cell, kidney cell, gastrointestinal tract cell, liver cell, hair follicle cell, testis cell, or cancer cell.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the cell is an esophageal cell, stomach cell, duodenum cell, jejunum cell, or colon cell.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the cell is the chronic myelogenous leukemia cell line K-562, the colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line SW480, a bone cell, a leukemia cell, a prostate cancer cell, a breast cancer cell, an esophagus cancer cell, a stomach cancer cell, and a colon cancer cell.
 18. The method of claim 13, wherein the chemical alters the transport properties of the protein.
 19. The method of claim 13, wherein the chemical binds to the protein.
 20. The method of claim 13, wherein the protein is integral with the cellular membrane.
 21. The method of claim 13, wherein the chemical is present as a free species. 